EPIS Basics

The Peace of Westphalia, signed in the German cities of Münster and Osnabrück, ended the 30-Year War. Some scholars have argued that the treaty established the principles of legal equality and states having exclusive sovereignty over their territories. However, critics have doubted whether these principles were ever widely accepted and whether they originated from the Peace of Westphalia.

As the leader of the Khmer Rouge, Pol rose to power in 1975 in the aftermath of the Cambodian civil war. The Khmer Rouge were a radical communist movement in Cambodia. Trying to establish a self-sufficient agrarian utopia, Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge forced millions into forced labour. The resulting famines and executions due to paranoia led to the Cambodian Genocide that killed one-fourth of Cambodia's population. Pol Pot was toppled in 1979 by Vietnamese troops and died in prison in 1998.

The term political warfare has been used differently throughout history. In the West, US Diplomat George Kennan significantly influenced the understanding of political warfare. In his 1948 memorandum "Organizing Political Warfare," Kennan described political warfare as the hostile employment of all means at a nation's disposal short of war.

Postcolonialism in international relations examines the continuing effects of colonialism on global power dynamics. It analyses how the legacies of former colonial powers continue to shape international interactions, policies, and institutions. Postcolonialism seeks to amplify marginalised voices, challenge Eurocentric narratives, and explore alternative forms of international cooperation that acknowledge historical injustices. It moreover aims for more levelled relations among states and regions.

Post-colonialism investigates how colonial history and narratives continue to influence international relations. Rather than anarchy, hierarchies reminiscent of colonialism are believed to dominate international relations. These hierarchies are reinforced by narratives that portray non-Western countries as fragile, incompetent, and in need of help. Western humanitarian aid often builds upon these narratives, subsequently reinforcing colonial hierarchies.

The Powell Doctrine owes its name to the former US Joint Chiefs of Staff chairman, Collin Powell. Drawing upon the 1990-91 Gulf War, Powell created a list of eight questions on whether the US should go to war. These questions included whether all peaceful alternatives had been exhausted and whether the US had a clear exit strategy out of the conflict. Moreover, the Powell Doctrine raises the question of whether the US enjoyed international and domestic support for a military intervention. Only when all questions were to be answered affirmatively should the US go to war.

The Power Transition Theory suggests that the international system is stable when power is concentrated with one dominant power that maintains the status quo, and that the probability of war increases when power is evenly distributed among rising powers. This theory particularly emphasises the potential for war during a transitional phase, as the established power is reluctant to give up its dominant position while rising powers aim to assert themselves.

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) was first created in 2008 but dispanded following Australia's exit in 2009. In 2017, the Quad was re-established. Observers have seen the Quad as a testimony to greater competition between China and the US. Indeed, China has referred to the Quad as an "Asian Nato". However, the Quad lacks the formal alliance structure and mutual defence obligations of NATO. Instead, the Quad cooperates in different working groups on innovation and economic issues and conducts joint military exercises.

The rational actor model assumes states assess policy options based on their predicted payoff. The policy with the highest payoff concerning an overarching goal is chosen. Specifically, comprehensive rationality assumes states are fully informed of payoffs. In contrast, bounded rationality believes states may not be fully informed of payoffs and may be influenced by historical and cultural preferences.

Realism is one of the dominant theories in international relations and it emphasises national interest as well as the role of power. It is based on the idea that the world order is anarchic, meaning there is no central authority. In this anarchy, the supreme goal of the state is to survive, so states prioritise their own security through alliances, military capabilities, and strategic calculations. This perspective views conflict among states as inherent to the international system, often undervaluing the role of international institutions and cooperation.

Regionalism in international relations refers to the process of states forming alliances, institutions, or cooperative initiatives within a specific geographic area. This approach can serve various purposes, such as promoting trade, enhancing security, and addressing shared challenges. This theory posits that regional dynamics can influence global politics by creating alternative centres of influence and thus affecting the overall structure of international relations.

Richard Nixon was the 37th President of the United States. His policy of détente sought to ease Cold War tensions through diplomatic engagement with the Soviet Union and China, leading to historic visits to both nations. He advanced nuclear arms control through The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreements with the USSR aiming at reducing the risk of nuclear arsenals. Nixon's emphasis on realpolitik aimed to advance American interests pragmatically, shaping the landscape of global diplomacy and fostering a new era of international relations.

Under Kennedy and Johnson, McNamara was US Secretary of Defense. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, McNamara was part of the US Executive Committee, which governed US decision-making. Supporting the Domino Theory, McNamara later oversaw the US engagement in the Vietnam War. Despite being labelled the architect of the Vietnam War, McNamara later expressed regret for the war.

Robert Schuman, a French statesman, played a crucial role in the formation of the EU. After WWII, he proposed the idea that close economic ties between nations could deter conflict, an idea central to liberalism. This concept is called the Schuman Plan, which led to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community. This marked the first step towards closer cooperation among European states, aiming to prevent further wars in the future. His commitment has left a lasting impact on the process of European integration.

Ayatollah Khomeini's rise in Iran marked a turning point in Middle Eastern relations. As the leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, he established an Islamic republic and challenged Western influence in the region. Khomeini's anti-Western stance affected global oil markets and inspired similar movements. His confrontational approach and pursuit of nuclear capabilities intensified tensions and diplomacy challenges, impacting Iran's global standing and regional dynamics.

According to the Security Dilemma, if one state increases its security capabilities, this simulataneously reduces the security of another. Consequently, security-increasing measures lead to a cycle of increased tensions, escalations, or conflicts. This occurs because it is hard to know about other states' intentions: Do they simple gear up their defence capabilities or are they actively preparing for war? Hence, efforts to enhance security can lead to greater instability due to the misperception of intentions and the lack of trust in the international system.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a regional intergovernmental alliance consisting of China, Russia, and several Central Asian nations. It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population. It promotes economic, political, and security cooperation among its members, focusing on issues like counterterrorism and regional stability. The SCO serves as a platform for dialogue and collaboration, addressing regional development and connectivity.

The United Nations is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1945 to promote international cooperation and peace. Its main objectives include maintaining global security, fostering economic developments, advancing human rights, and addressing humanitarian crises. The UN has several principal operational bodies which are involved in various activities ranging from the military domain such as peacekeeping operations to sustainable development initiatives.

After Columbus discovered America in 1492, tensions arose between Spain and Portugal over the possession of new territories. To avoid war, Pope Alexander VI mediated between the powers, leading to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. The Treaty vaguely established a meridian off the coast of the Cape Verde Islands. Territories West of the meridian belonged to Spain, while lands east of the meridian were to be Portuguese.

The 1919 Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty ending the First World War between Germany and the Allied Powers of Great Britain, the US, and France. Defeated Germany had to pay reparations and limit its army to 100'000 men. Germany further lost its colonies and made territorial concessions in Europe. Advocates believed the treaty ensured Germany would not become a threat to peace. Critics claimed the treaty was too harsh, creating dissatisfaction leading to the Second World War.

Entering into force in 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aimed to limit the possession of nuclear weapons while promoting the peaceful use of atomic energy. The treaty only permits the US, USSR (Russia), the UK, France, and China to possess nuclear weapons. In exchange for this exclusivity, the countries with nuclear weapons are to share nuclear technology for peaceful purposes and work towards nuclear disarmament.

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the UN, responsible for ensuring international peace and security. It consists of 15 member states and 5 permanent members, and the permanent members possess veto power on every proposal. The Security Council has authority to impose sanctions, authorise peacekeeping missions, and take collective initiatives to address conflicts. It is a vital forum for addressing urgent international crises and responding to complex geopolitical challenges.

Vladimir Putin, the current president of Russia, has had and continues to exert significant influence on international relations. Under his leadership, Russia has reasserted itself as a major global player, challenging Western dominance and advocating for a multipolar world order. Putin's policies have sparked international controversy and strained relations with the West. His assertive approach to defending Russian interests and promoting national identity has shaped Russia's stance in global affairs.

Winston Churchill was a British statesman and served as Prime Minister twice. He played a pivotal role during World War II, inspiring the Allied forces with his leadership and defending liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. Churchill's close relationship with Roosevelt fostered the Anglo-American alliance, a cornerstone of wartime cooperation. He was also an early proponent of a united Europe to prevent future conflicts, proposing the idea of a "United States of Europe."

The World Bank is an international financial institution which provides loans, grants, and technical assistance to developing countries for financial projects. Its primary goal is to reduce poverty in the world by providing aid for building infrastructures and addressing debt problems of the Third World economies. It focuses on assisting nations in achieving sustainable growth while addressing global challenges such as inequality and environmental sustainability.

The World Food Programme (WFP) is the food assistance branch of the UN. It addresses hunger and food insecurity globally by providing aid and supporting development projects to improve food access and nutrition in vulnerable populations. The WFP's efforts encompass food distribution, cash transfers, and medical supports, often in conflict zones and disaster-stricken areas. The organisation plays a crucial role in saving lives, supporting livelihoods, and promoting long-term food security and resilience.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a UN agency responsible for global public health. It is critical in disease prevention and coordinating responses to health emergencies. Consequently, the WHO not only provides aid to countries but also monitors global health and develops health standards. Amongst the WHO's most notable achievements lie the eradication of smallpox and the near-eradication of polio.

Established in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is dedicated to facilitating global trade. To this end, the WTO oversees more than 60 treaties on removing trade barriers, facilitating market access and promoting economic growth. If a WTO member state is believed to violate trade rules, members have pledged not to take action unilaterally. Instead, the WTO provides a dispute settlement mechanism.

Xi Jinping is the current president of the People's Republic of China. He has significantly shaped international relations by promoting China's global role through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative, aiming to enhance economic connectivity across continents. Xi has sought to strengthen China's presence in international organisations and dialogues, asserting China's interests on issues like climate change and global governance. However, his assertive approach in territorial disputes and human rights concerns has also drawn criticism, impacting China's relations with other countries.

As national security advisor, Brzezinski helped attain the 1978 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty. Notably, Brzezinski orchestrated a departure from the Nixon administration's détent with the Soviet Union. Believing détent had only emboldened the Soviet Union, Brzezinski sought to challenge the Soviet Union on the grounds of human rights and international law.