EPIS Basics
Basis-Informationen zur internationalen Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik
In kleinen Wissensbeiträgen stellen wir wöchentlich grundlegende Informationen zur internationalen Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik vor. Die kurzen Ausführungen drehen sich um zentrale Persönlichkeiten, Theorien und Organisationen. So hast Du auf die schnelle einen Überblick.
The Dynamic Differential Theory focuses on how the power perceptions of states shape their strategic behaviour. It asserts that states' choices to balance against or bandwagon with stronger powers are driven by their assessments of relative power changes. It also contends that the decline of a dominant military power is the cause of war. That is because the strong power sees the power differential in the global order which is their downward of power. This theory offers insights into alliance formation and how states strategically respond to changing power dynamics.
Environmental Security contends that environmental issues are vital to global stability and national security. This concept emphasises the interconnection between ecological issues and traditional security concerns. This perspective first and foremost highlights potential conflicts over environmental resources or the displacement of populations due to environmental factors. It asserts the need for international cooperation to address shared environmental threats, promoting both ecological sustainability and geopolitical stability.
Postcolonialism in international relations examines the continuing effects of colonialism on global power dynamics. It analyses how the legacies of former colonial powers continue to shape international interactions, policies, and institutions. Postcolonialism seeks to amplify marginalised voices, challenge Eurocentric narratives, and explore alternative forms of international cooperation that acknowledge historical injustices. It moreover aims for more levelled relations among states and regions.
Regionalism in international relations refers to the process of states forming alliances, institutions, or cooperative initiatives within a specific geographic area. This approach can serve various purposes, such as promoting trade, enhancing security, and addressing shared challenges. This theory posits that regional dynamics can influence global politics by creating alternative centres of influence and thus affecting the overall structure of international relations.
Game Theory is a framework for analysing strategic interactions between states where outcomes depend on the choices of all actors involved. States aim to maximize their own gains while considering the potential actions of other states. This approach helps understand how states might cooperate, compete, or engage in conflict, based on their assumptions of each other's actions. Game Theory provides insights into negotiation dynamics, arms races, and various other international scenarios.
The English School Theory of International Relations aims to reconcile Realism and Idealism, emphasizing power and sovereignty alongside norms and institutions' impact on global outcomes. It highlights the evolution of an international society based on common values, rules, and shared interests, fostering cooperation while acknowledging the enduring significance of state power.
Hedging, a relatively new concept, refers to a strategic approach where states simultaneously pursue multiple policies to manage uncertainty and adapt to changing geopolitical dynamics. This involves both maintaining a flexible stance and hedging against potential risks. This strategy aims to have a balance between safeguarding security and maximising advantageous opportunities in an unpredictable international environment.
Balancing and bandwagoning are two strategies that states employ in response to shifts in the balance of power. Balancing refers to the tendency of weaker states to form alliances to counterbalance against a stronger power in order to maintain a stable power equilibrium. On the other hand, bandwagoning involves weaker states aligning with a dominant power, often in the hope of benefiting from its protection. Balancing is derived from the desire to avoid loss, whereas bandwagoning states seek an opportunity to gain benefits.
The Power Transition Theory suggests that the international system is stable when power is concentrated with one dominant power that maintains the status quo and that the probability of war increases when power is evenly distributed among rising powers. This theory particularly emphasises the potential for war during a transitional phase, as the established power is reluctant to give up its dominant position while rising powers aim to assert themselves.
The Hegemonic Stability Theory suggests that the international system is more likely to be stable in a unipolar system where there is a single dominant power or hegemon. As this hegemon provides public goods such as a stable currency and security guarantees, it reduces uncertainty among states and maintains the international order. This theory also indicates that shifts in hegemonic power can lead to instability and conflict as new powers seek control and the established order will be disrupted.
According to the Security Dilemma, if one state increases its security capabilities, this simultaneously reduces the security of another. Consequently, security-increasing measures lead to a cycle of increased tensions, escalations, or conflicts. This occurs because it is hard to know about other states' intentions: Do they simply gear up their defence capabilities or are they actively preparing for war? Hence, efforts to enhance security can lead to greater instability due to the misperception of intentions and the lack of trust in the international system.
The Balance of Threat Theory asserts that states form alliances based on the threat they perceive from other states. It contends that states evaluate potential threats not only regarding power but also consider the level of aggression, the capabilities, and the intentions of other states. This theory highlights the importance of assessing threats and suggests that states align against those perceived as the greatest threats rather than just the most powerful entities.
The Balance of Power Theory suggests that states seek to prevent any single state or coalition from dominating the international system. This behaviour is derived from the threat to each state’s survival. If one state gains significant power, it will take advantage of its less powerful neighbours. The theory contends that states will naturally form alliances or counter-alliances to prevent the emergence of a hegemon and to maintain a relative equilibrium of power.
The Democratic Peace Theory argues that democracies are reluctant to engage in armed conflict with other democracies. This theory proposes that shared democratic norms lead to a higher level of peaceful relations among democratic countries. It is based on the notion that democracies are accountable to their citizens, and citizens generally prefer peace over conflicts. However, critics argue that other factors such as economic ties also play a role in influencing interstate relations since democracies are not completely immune to conflict.
Neoliberalism is a strand of liberalism that concentrates on economic aspects. While both liberalism and neoliberalism emphasise cooperation among states and the role of international institutions, neoliberalism specifically prioritises the benefits of economic globalisation and market-oriented policies. It places a huge emphasis on mechanisms such as deregulation, privatisation, and free markets to promote economic growth and reduce conflicts among states.
Neorealism, also known as structural realism, argues that the structure of the international system impacts state behaviour. Neorealism contends that the anarchic nature of the international system, where there is no central authority, drives states to prioritise their own security and survival. Unlike classical realism, neorealism puts more emphasis on systemic factors and downplays the role of individual leaders and state-specific attributes in shaping international relations.
Constructivism focuses on the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping global politics. It contends that international outcomes are influenced by not only material factors but also non-material factors such as socially constructed perceptions and conventions. Constructivism highlights the importance of shared beliefs, cultural practices, and historical contexts in shaping state behaviour. It argues that their behaviours are not fixed but can adapt and change based on evolving social norms and identities.
Liberalist theorists argue that peace is achieved through cooperation, institutions, and peaceful interaction among states. It contends that international cooperation can lead to the promotion of common interests. Liberalism emphasises the importance of international institutions in providing a forum for diplomacy to prevent conflict among states. Unlike realism, liberalism sees that states pursue not only their interests but also seek shared values such as democracy, human rights, and economic prosperity.
Realism is one of the dominant theories in international relations and it emphasises national interest as well as the role of power. It is based on the idea that the world order is anarchic, meaning there is no central authority. In this anarchy, the supreme goal of the state is to survive, so states prioritise their own security through alliances, military capabilities, and strategic calculations. This perspective views conflict among states as inherent to the international system, often undervaluing the role of international institutions and cooperation.
Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights. It advocates for the protection of human rights, including civil liberties, political freedoms, and social justice. The organisation operates independently and strives to mobilise public support to pressure governments and other entities to uphold human rights standards.
The World Food Programme (WFP) is the food assistance branch of the UN. It addresses hunger and food insecurity globally by providing aid and supporting development projects to improve food access and nutrition in vulnerable populations. The WFP's efforts encompass food distribution, cash transfers, and medical support, often in conflict zones and disaster-stricken areas. The organisation plays a crucial role in saving lives, supporting livelihoods, and promoting long-term food security and resilience.
The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member states that pursues a stimulation of economic progress and world trade. Its member countries describe themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy. The OECD provides a platform for its members to compare policy experiences, identify good practices, and coordinate domestic and international policies.
The International Criminal Police Organisation, known as Interpol, is an international organization that facilitates police cooperation and crime control. It provides investigative support and expertise focusing on three main areas of transnational crime: terrorism, cybercrime, and organized crime. Interpol promotes cooperation among national law enforcement agencies by coordinating criminal databases and communication networks.
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an international organization founded by oil-producing nations. Its primary objective is to coordinate and regulate the production and pricing of petroleum to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profit. OPEC seeks to balance the interests of both producers and consumers by managing oil supply to maintain reasonable prices. Its decisions play a significant role in the global oil markets and international relations.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organisation that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing its misuse for military purposes. The IAEA monitors nuclear activities, inspects facilities, and helps to ensure the international safeguards and non-proliferation agreements. The agency also provides technical assistance to member states in nuclear technology applications, safety, and security.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a specialized agency of the UN responsible for global public health. The WHO's primary goal is to ensure that all people can attain the highest possible level of health by setting health standards, monitoring health trends, and offering technical assistance to countries. It plays a critical role in coordinating responses to health emergencies, promoting disease prevention, and advancing healthcare access worldwide.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution founded at the Bretton Woods Conference along with the World Bank. The IMF aims to foster global monetary cooperation, ensure exchange rate stability, and facilitate international trade. It also offers financial assistance and policy advice to help countries manage economic challenges, often requiring structural reforms in return. The IMF's overarching goal is to promote global economic stability and growth while addressing financial vulnerabilities and supporting countries in times of economic crises.
The World Bank is an international financial institution which provides loans, grants, and technical assistance to developing countries for financial projects. Its primary goal is to reduce poverty in the world by providing aid for building infrastructures and addressing the debt problems of the Third World economies. It focuses on assisting nations in achieving sustainable growth while addressing global challenges such as inequality and environmental sustainability.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization dedicated to facilitating global trade and enforcing trade rules. It provides a forum for negotiations and settling trade disputes, and monitors members' operation of the agreement to trade regulations. The WTO promotes fair and transparent trade practices, facilitates market access, and aims to support economic growth and development worldwide.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a regional intergovernmental alliance consisting of China, Russia, and several Central Asian nations. It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population. It promotes economic, political, and security cooperation among its members, focusing on issues like counterterrorism and regional stability. The SCO serves as a platform for dialogue and collaboration, addressing regional development and connectivity.
AUKUS is a security partnership formed between three countries: Australia, the UK, and the US. It focuses on defence and technology collaboration, particularly in the realm of advanced nuclear-powered submarines. The partnership aims to bolster regional security and stability and expects to provide deterrence in the Indo-Pacific region, where concerns about China's influence have grown. Under the pact, the UK and the US will assist Australia in acquiring the submarines, showing their commitment to maintaining a strong presence in the region.
FIVE EYES is an intelligence alliance comprising four English-speaking countries: the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. These nations collaborate on signals intelligence gathering and sharing. The alliance aims to enhance security and intelligence capabilities through information exchange. FIVE EYES members commit to joint efforts in monitoring global communications and sharing valuable intelligence, emphasizing close cooperation and mutual trust in addressing international security challenges.
The African Union (AU) is a continental organisation consisting of 55 African nations. Its goal is to enhance political, economic, and social cooperation across the continent. The AU seeks to prevent and manage conflict through organs like its Peace and Security Council. The AU has also compromised that it is possible to militarily intervene in a member state under the name of peacekeeping. The AU's efforts include addressing conflicts, advancing human rights, and coordinating responses to continental challenges such as health crises and climate change.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional intergovernmental organisation of 10 member states that promotes regional peace and stability and accelerates economic growth. It promotes the “ASEAN Way” which refers to an approach to solving issues that respect the region’s cultural norms. Its key principles include non-interference in domestic affairs and consensus-based decision-making.
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 nations that are primarily located in Europe. Starting off as the European Coal and Steel community, it has evolved into a broader union with shared citizenship beginning with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992. The EU’s key objectives include creating a single market with free movement of goods, services, people, and capital as well as fostering common foreign and security policies.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance consisting of European and North American nations and it strives to ensure security and collective defence. 31 member states have committed to mutual defence in response to an armed attack by external parties. NATO’s primary objective is to promote stability and deter aggression by coordinating military efforts and sharing information among member states.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN. It settles legal disputes between states and provides advisory opinions on international legal issues. The ICJ covers issues such as territorial disputes, treaty interpretation, and questions of international law. The ICJ serves as a vital forum for upholding the rule of law and promoting international justice through impartial adjudication.
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the UN, responsible for ensuring international peace and security. It consists of 15 member states and 5 permanent members, and the permanent members possess veto power on every proposal. The Security Council has the authority to impose sanctions, authorise peacekeeping missions, and take collective initiatives to address conflicts. It is a vital forum for addressing urgent international crises and responding to complex geopolitical challenges.
The United Nations is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1945 to promote international cooperation and peace. Its main objectives include maintaining global security, fostering economic development, advancing human rights, and addressing humanitarian crises. The UN has several principal operational bodies which are involved in various activities ranging from the military domain such as peacekeeping operations to sustainable development initiatives.
Richard Nixon was the 37th President of the United States. His policy of détente sought to ease Cold War tensions through diplomatic engagement with the Soviet Union and China, leading to historic visits to both nations. He advanced nuclear arms control through The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreements with the USSR aiming at reducing the risk of nuclear arsenals. Nixon's emphasis on realpolitik aimed to advance American interests pragmatically, shaping the landscape of global diplomacy and fostering a new era of international relations.
John Mearsheimer is a prominent international relations scholar known for his theory of offensive realism. This theory posits that assertive behaviours among great powers are driven by the desire to achieve hegemony in an anarchic system. Mearsheimer contends that this pursuit of power often leads to competition and conflict among states. His influential book "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics" explores how this dynamic plays out, highlighting how great powers' efforts to secure themselves can inadvertently lead to tensions and instability on the global stage.
Angela Merkel, a former German Chancellor, had a huge impact on international relations, particularly in Europe. Her leadership during the Eurozone crisis demonstrated commitment to European unity and stability. She advocated for multilateralism, notably in climate agreements, while managing the challenges of migration. Merkel's pragmatic diplomacy and focus on cooperation positioned Germany as a key player in shaping a balanced and collaborative global framework.
Hans Morgenthau was a prominent 20th-century political theorist. His work, particularly the book "Politics Among Nations," laid the foundation for realism in international relations theory. Morgenthau emphasized the importance of power, national interests, and state behaviour in global politics. He contended that states pursued their interests in a competitive world, and his ideas continue to shape the understanding of international relations driven by self-interest and power dynamics.
Kim Jong Un, North Korea's leader since 2011, keeps ruling the DPRK as a totalitarian dictatorship. His provocative pursuit of nuclear weapons heightened tensions with the US and South Korea as well as China. After phases of high tension, relations with the US and South Korea thawed through a series of meetings in 2018 and 2019. However, the negotiations ultimately broke down without progress in denuclearization, leaving North Korea's relationship with the international community uncertain and complex.
The rise of Ruhollah Khomenei, also known as Ayatollah Khomeini, marked a turning point in Middle-Eastern relations. As the leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, he established an Islamic republic and challenged Western influence in the region. Khomeini's anti-Western stance affected global oil markets and inspired similar movements. His confrontational approach and pursuit of nuclear capabilities intensified tensions and diplomacy challenges, impacting Iran's global standing and regional dynamics.
As Soviet leader (1985-1991), Mikhail Gorbachev redefined global politics. His policies of openness (glasnost) and restructuring (perestroika) led to the end of the Cold War and to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev's leadership introduced new political and economic freedoms in the Soviet Union. His role in the German reunification process and arms reduction treaties fostered a more cooperative global environment, shaping the post-Cold War world.
Henry Kissinger, a prominent diplomat and political thinker, played a key role in shaping US foreign policy. He employed realpolitik strategies, as known as pursuing pragmatic policies, to ease tensions during the Cold War. Kissinger's diplomacy re-established US-China relations and negotiated the end of the Vietnam War. However, he remains a controversial figure in U.S. politics for his tolerance and support of war crimes surrounding his policies.
Mohammed Bin Salman, Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince, has made waves in international relations through his Vision 2030 plan which aims to diversify Saudi Arabia's economy, impacting energy markets worldwide. His foreign policy is marked by regional assertiveness, particularly evident through the Yemen conflict and the diplomatic rift with Qatar. The international society condemns his poor record on human rights.
Deng Xiaoping's transformative leadership reshaped China's global presence. As part of his Reform and Opening-up diplomacy, he sought foreign investment and partnerships, opening the nation to international trade and driving China's rapid economic growth. Deng also proposed the 'One Country, Two Systems' approach for the governance of Hong Kong. Deng's shift to economic pragmatism reshaped global perceptions of China, fostering its rise as a major international player.
Margaret Thatcher, a former UK Prime Minister, reshaped international relations through assertive diplomacy and conservative ideology. Her resolute stance of distrust of communism reinforced the UK's relationship with the US. Thatcher also championed free-market principles and deregulation of the economy which influenced global economic policies. Her firm leadership left an enduring mark on geopolitics and neoliberal thought.
Robert Schuman, a French statesman, played a crucial role in the formation of the EU. After WWII, he proposed the idea that close economic ties between nations could deter conflict, an idea central to liberalism. This concept is called the Schuman Plan, which led to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community. This marked the first step towards closer cooperation among European states, aiming to prevent further wars in the future. His commitment has left a lasting impact on the process of European integration.
Vladimir Putin, the current president of Russia, has had and continues to exert significant influence on international relations. Under his leadership, Russia has reasserted itself as a major global player, challenging Western dominance and advocating for a multipolar world order. Putin's policies have sparked international controversy and strained relations with the West. His assertive approach to defending Russian interests and promoting national identity has shaped Russia's stance in global affairs.
Charles de Gaulle, often known as the General, was a prominent French military leader and statesman. As a president of France, he pursued a policy of “national independence” asserting French sovereignty and opposing both American and Soviet dominance during the Cold War. This led him to withdraw France from NATO's integrated military command and to develop its own nuclear capabilities that made France the world’s fourth nuclear power. De Gaulle's approach emphasised national pride and an assertive stance in international affairs, shaping France's role on the world stage.
Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union from the 1920s until his death in 1953, had a significant impact on the international order during and after World War II. He allied with the United Kingdom and the United States to eventually defeat Nazi Germany in 1945. Stalin's post-war actions contributed to the division between Eastern and Western blocs, marking the beginning of the Cold War. His visions set the stage for the ideological and geopolitical tensions that defined international relations for decades.
Winston Churchill was a British statesman and served as Prime Minister twice. He played a pivotal role during World War II, inspiring the Allied forces with his leadership and defending liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. Churchill's close relationship with Roosevelt fostered the Anglo-American alliance, a cornerstone of wartime cooperation. He was also an early proponent of a united Europe to prevent future conflicts, proposing the idea of a "United States of Europe."
Xi Jinping is the current president of the People's Republic of China. He has significantly shaped international relations by promoting China's global role through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative, aiming to enhance economic connectivity across continents. Xi has sought to strengthen China's presence in international organisations and dialogues, asserting China's interests on issues like climate change and global governance. However, his assertive approach in territorial disputes and human rights concerns has also drawn criticism, impacting China's relations with other countries.
John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, had a notable impact on international relations during the Cold War era. His leadership was marked by the Cuban Missile Crisis, where he defused a potential nuclear conflict between the US and the Soviet Union. He also championed the idea of a world based on collective security through international alliances, such as NATO, to counter the spread of communism and maintain stability in the face of ideological tensions.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the US, played a pivotal role in shaping the post-World War II international order. He sought to prevent future global conflicts by fostering diplomatic cooperation among nations. He worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the UN, promoting it to become a forum for peaceful negotiation and conflict resolution. Roosevelt's vision emphasised collective security and self-determination, guiding the world toward a more collaborative and rule-based international system.